Lurking on the sidelines was a disgusted army officer corps unwilling to subject itself to civilian control, but ready to follow the retired Piłsudski, who was highly popular with Poles and just as dissatisfied with the Polish system of government as his former colleagues in the military. Wałęsa had meetings with Kania, which brought no resolution to the impasse. Dit is een doorverwijspagina, bedoeld om de verschillen in betekenis of gebruik van Poland inzichtelijk te maken.. Op deze pagina staat een uitleg van de verschillende betekenissen van Poland en verwijzingen daarnaartoe. Wooded regions to the north and east were settled by Balts. Certain other achievements of the democratic period having to do with the management of governmental and civic institutions necessary to the functioning of the reunited state and nation were too easily overlooked. Warszawa, ndiwo msumba wukulu wa boma mu Poland. Lithuania and the Königsberg area of East Prussia were officially incorporated into the Soviet Union, in the case of the former without the recognition of the Western powers. Law-Reports of Trials of War Criminals, The United Nations War Crimes Commission, Volume VII, London, HMSO, 1948 CASE NO. The legislature remained fragmented, without stable majorities, and governments changed frequently. Almost all Solidarity leaders and many affiliated intellectuals were arrested or detained. [267], Around 1 July 1980, with the Polish foreign debt standing at more than $20 billion, the government made yet another attempt to increase meat prices. Of the upper-ranking military personnel and others deemed uncooperative or potentially harmful by the Soviets, about 22,000 were secretly executed by them at the Katyn massacre. Lenin also hoped for generating support for the Red Army in Poland, which failed to materialize. Poland (pl. [281], During martial law, Poland was ruled by the so-called Military Council of National Salvation. The technically and numerically superior Wehrmacht formations rapidly advanced eastwards and engaged massively in the murder of Polish civilians over the entire occupied territory. The communist-led State National Council, a quasi-parliamentary body, was in existence in Warsaw from the beginning of 1944. On the initiative of Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, Polish independence was officially endorsed by the Allies in June 1918. According to Norman Davies, the failures of the Sanation regime (combined with the objective economic realities) caused a radicalization of the Polish masses by the end of the 1930s, but he warns against drawing parallels with the incomparably more repressive regimes of Nazi Germany or the Stalinist Soviet Union. [87] Piłsudski's concept of Intermarium (an East European federation of states inspired by the tradition of the multiethnic Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that would include a hypothetical multinational successor state to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania)[88] had the fatal flaw of being incompatible with his assumption of Polish domination, which would amount to an encroachment on the neighboring peoples' lands and aspirations. The first two kings from this dynasty, Sigismund III (r. 1587–1632) and Władysław IV (r. 1632–1648), repeatedly attempted to intrigue for accession to the throne of Sweden, which was a constant source of distraction for the affairs of the Commonwealth. Some organizations state people have left because of high unemployment (10.5%) and better opportunities for work somewhere else. [76][d1] In 1917, France formed the Blue Army (placed under Józef Haller) that comprised about 70,000 Poles by the end of the war, including men captured from German and Austrian units and 20,000 volunteers from the United States. [202], Many exiled Poles could not return to the country for which they had fought because they belonged to political groups incompatible with the new communist regimes, or because they originated from areas of pre-war eastern Poland that were incorporated into the Soviet Union (see Polish population transfers (1944–1946)). The Sejm is the lower chamber of Parliament legislature for the country. [314], h.^ East of the Molotov-Ribbentrop line, the population was 43% Polish, 33% Ukrainian, 8% Belarusian and 8% Jewish. The history of Poland (Polish: Historia Polski) spans over a thousand years, from medieval tribes, Christianization and monarchy; through Poland's Golden Age, expansionism and becoming one of the largest European powers; to its collapse and partitions, two world wars, communism, and the restoration of democracy. [137] Hitler, incensed by the British and French declarations of support for Poland,[137] abrogated the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact in late April 1939. In the 12th century Poland broke into some smaller states after the death of King Bolesław III Wrymouth in 1138 because of his will. [251][k] While retaining most traditional communist economic and social aims, the regime led by Władysław Gomułka, the new first secretary of the PZPR, liberalized internal life in Poland. [120], When Marshal Piłsudski died in 1935, he retained the support of dominant sections of Polish society even though he never risked testing his popularity in an honest election. [126] Eventually they achieved an overt politicization of the army that did nothing to help prepare the country for war. Warsaw was defeated on September 28, 1939. One of the many cultures that have been uncovered, the Lusatian culture, spanned the Bronze and Iron Ages and left notable settlement sites. Warsaw, whose population almost doubled between World War I and World War II, was a restless, burgeoning metropolis. In 2007, the number of people leaving the country was lower than people who are coming back. At the same time they sent emissaries to London and Paris, looking for their support in stopping Germany's rearmament effort. [136] The status of the Free City of Danzig was one of the key bones of contention. They were soon followed by emerging cultures with a strong Germanic component, influenced first by the Celts and then by the Roman Empire. Poland is also a member of NATO, the United Nations, and the World Trade Organization. Casimir's son Bolesław II the Generous (r. 1058–79) became involved in a conflict with Bishop Stanislaus of Szczepanów that ultimately caused his downfall. [274], While party–controlled courts took up the contentious issues of Solidarity's legal registration as a trade union (finalized by November 10), planning had already begun for the imposition of martial law. Radicalized by recent events, Polish reformers (whether in exile or still resident in the reduced area remaining to the Commonwealth) were soon working on preparations for a national insurrection. Military raids, public beatings, property confiscations and the closing and destruction of Orthodox churches aroused lasting enmity in Galicia and antagonized Ukrainian society in Volhynia at the worst possible moment, according to Timothy D. Snyder. Illiteracy was reduced, most effectively in the Prussian partition, but education in the Polish language was preserved mostly through unofficial efforts. Poland merupakan sebuah negara yang kaya dengan kepelbagaian biologi. Many people emigrated to Poland, becoming a haven for emigrants . In the Prussian Partition, for example, agricultural production depended heavily on the German market, whereas the industrial sector of Congress Poland relied more on the Russian market.[67]. 37 The Trial of Haupturmfuhrer Amon Leopold Goeth page 9. occupation of Poland between 1939 and 1945, geographic centre of gravity shifted towards the west, History of Poland during the Piast dynasty, Chronica seu originale regum et principum Poloniae, History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty, History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795), History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648), converts from Polish and Lithuanian Protestant circles, History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1764), History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1764–1795), Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, administrative division of Polish–Lithuanian territories after partitions, resistance movements in partitioned Poland, enfranchisement decree in Congress Poland, Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Silesia, Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania, Revolution of 1905–1907 in Russian Poland, Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government, Polish resistance movement in World War II, fundamentally changed after the conclusion of World War II, Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland, rescue, shelter and protect Jews from the Nazi atrocity, Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia, Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II, Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1946), Polish legislative election of January 1947, Constitution of the Polish People's Republic, land reform decree of the Polish Committee of National Liberation, 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, repatriation of hundreds of thousands of Poles, economic stagnation and curtailment of reforms and reformists, Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops, agreement between leaders of striking workers and government representatives, Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland, People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs, collective responsibility on the villagers, History of the Ukrainian minority in Poland, "Why the Poles Collaborated so Little: And Why That Is No Reason for Nationalist Hubris", Names and Numbers of Righteous Among the Nations - per Country & Ethnic Origin, as of January 1, 2019, "Controversial judicial reform still 'needed,' Polish prime minister says after EU battle", "Who Will Win in Rule-of-Law Clash Between Poland and EU? [18][20], The privileges of the szlachta (nobility) kept expanding and in 1425 the rule of Neminem captivabimus, which protected the noblemen from arbitrary royal arrests, was formulated.[18]. As a result of territorial adjustments mandated by the Allies at the end of World War II in 1945, Poland's geographic centre of gravity shifted towards the west and the re-defined Polish lands largely lost their historic multi-ethnic character through the extermination, expulsion and migration of various ethnic groups during and after the war. At the time of rising national movements, the plan thus ceased being a feature of Poland's politics. [24] At that time, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and the Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Polish and Lithuanian Protestant circles. The NSZ conducted an anti-communist civil war. [8] Its official name is Republic of Poland. The Polish people did not like the new kings, and often rebelled (two big rebellions in 1830[10] and 1863[11]). [35] Merkuriusz Polski, the first Polish newspaper, was published in 1661. Many libraries and reading rooms were established in small towns and villages, and numerous printed periodicals manifested the growing interest in popular education. Nyika iyi ine miganhu ne Czechia , Russia , Ukraine , Belarus , Slovakia , … Attempts were therefore made by them to induce Soviet-Polish cooperation, which they viewed as the only militarily viable arrangement. The policies of religious tolerance that developed in Poland were nearly unique in Europe at that time and many who fled regions torn by religious strife found refuge in Poland. [288] Only 35% of the seats in the Sejm (national legislature's lower house) and all of the Senate seats were freely contested; the remaining Sejm seats (65%) were guaranteed for the communists and their allies. [252] A repatriation agreement with the Soviet Union allowed the repatriation of hundreds of thousands of Poles who were still in Soviet hands, including many former political prisoners. Polska) yɛ ɔman u Yurop.N'ahenkuro yɛ Warsaw (pl. He saw Poland's role and opportunity as lying in Eastern Europe and advocated passive relations with the West. [150] This allowed the British to perform the cryptanalysis of the Enigma and decipher the main German military code, which gave the Allies a major advantage in the conflict. [235], In 1944, large agricultural holdings and former German property in Poland started to be redistributed through land reform, and industry started to be nationalized. The Bronze Age started around 2400-2300 BC. In the second half of the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century, the Commonwealth was one of the largest and most populous states in contemporary Europe, with an area approaching one million square kilometres (0.39 million square miles) and a population of about ten million. His election, seen at the time as politically necessary, was barely accomplished with tacit support from some Solidarity deputies, and the new president's position was not strong. The limited legal reforms in the Austrian Partition were overshadowed by its rural poverty. It was fought to preserve Poland's independence and the nobility's traditional interests. The degree of industrialisation, relatively fast-paced in some areas, lagged behind the advanced regions of Western Europe. [4], Poland's Early Bronze Age began around 2400–2300 BC, whereas its Iron Age commenced c. 750–700 BC. At the time an invasion by Poland would have posed a serious military threat to Germany, but with the British rejecting the idea (in favor of the Four-Power Pact), and with wavering support from the French, the Poles had eventually reneged on the idea of invasion. [24][25] In 1525, during the reign of Sigismund I,[18] the Teutonic Order was secularized and Duke Albert performed an act of homage before the Polish king (the Prussian Homage) for his fief, the Duchy of Prussia. [328] Most people in communist Poland, including opposition activists, did not question the supremacy of socialism or the socialist idea; misconduct by party officials, such as not following the provisions of the constitution, was blamed. A transfer of land and air forces through Poland and/or Romania was required and the Soviets approached about it the French, who also had a treaty with Czechoslovakia (and with Poland and with the Soviet Union). Historians have taken widely divergent views of the meaning and consequences of the coup Piłsudski perpetrated and his personal rule that followed. The leading pro-communist leaders of the socialists were the prime ministers Edward Osóbka-Morawski and Józef Cyrankiewicz. [9] He ruled over a limited territory and was soon killed. [158][159][w], The organizations forming the Polish Underground State that functioned in Poland throughout the war were loyal to and formally under the Polish government-in-exile, acting through its Government Delegation for Poland. [148] Poland was ultimately partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union according to the terms of the German–Soviet Frontier Treaty signed by the two powers in Moscow on 29 September. The partition left the country with a critically reduced territory that rendered it essentially incapable of an independent existence. Nationwide religious toleration was guaranteed at the Warsaw Confederation in 1573. [294], There were several post-Solidarity governments between the 1989 election and the 1993 election, after which the "post-communist" left-wing parties took over. These formed during and after the Pleistocene ice age. Even before that event, Lech Wałęsa was given a Nobel Prize for leading the first non-communist trade union fighting for democracy in the Communist Block. When Communism ended in Poland there were many improvements in human rights, such as freedom of speech, democracy, etc. [270], Fueled by large infusions of Western credit, Poland's economic growth rate was one of the world's highest during the first half of the 1970s, but much of the borrowed capital was misspent, and the centrally planned economy was unable to use the new resources effectively. The Polish language is part of the West Slavic section of the Slavic languages. [1] The Lechitic Western Polans, a tribe whose name means "people living in open fields", dominated the region, and gave Poland - which lies in the North-Central European Plain - its name. Lviv was then contested in the Polish–Ukrainian War of 1918–1919. This treaty divided Prussia to create East Prussia, the future Duchy of Prussia, a separate entity that functioned as a fief of Poland under the administration of the Teutonic Knights. [155] About 200,000 Poles fought on the Western Front in the Polish Armed Forces in the West loyal to the government-in-exile, and about 300,000 in the Polish Armed Forces in the East under the Soviet command on the Eastern Front. He returned from abroad and issued Kościuszko's proclamation in Kraków on March 24, 1794. [163], From 1941, the implementation of the Nazi Final Solution began, and the Holocaust in Poland proceeded with force. [50] Despite the bleak from the standpoint of Polish patriots political situation, economic progress was made in the lands taken over by foreign powers because the period after the Congress of Vienna witnessed a significant development in the building of early industry. [59][60], On 2 March 1864, the Russian authority, compelled by the uprising to compete for the loyalty of Polish peasants, officially published an enfranchisement decree in Congress Poland along the lines of an earlier land reform proclamation of the insurgents. Many smaller agricultural enterprises based on serfdom did not survive the land reforms. Approached by Ribbentrop again in March 1939, the Polish government expressed willingness to address issues causing German concern, but effectively rejected Germany's stated demands and thus refused to allow Poland to be turned by Adolf Hitler into a German puppet state. The Plenum's vote was 180 to 4, and he kept his government posts. The uprising was originally planned as a short-lived armed demonstration in expectation that the Soviet forces approaching Warsaw would assist in any battle to take the city. He endorsed the Piast Concept, which justified a massive shift of Poland's frontiers to the west. [190] Nearly half of pre-war Poland was expropriated by the Soviet Union, including the two great cultural centers of Lwów and Wilno. Five thousand political opponents were arrested ahead of the Polish legislative election of 1930,[107] which was rigged to award a majority of seats to the pro-regime Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government (BBWR).[81][108][109]. q.^ In Poland, officials of central government (the provincial office of wojewoda) can overrule elected territorial and municipal local governments. [194] [139] However, the two Western powers were defense-oriented and not in a strong position, either geographically or in terms of resources, to assist Poland. [75][76], After more than a century of foreign rule, Poland regained its independence at the end of World War I as one of the outcomes of the negotiations that took place at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. The "Red", or left-wing faction of Polish activists, which promoted peasant enfranchisement and cooperated with Russian revolutionaries, became involved in immediate preparations for a national uprising. Poland - Republic of Poland The Republic of Poland is a country in Central Europe or Eastern Europe, depending on the definition, bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, and the Baltic Sea, Russia (in the form of the Kaliningrad Oblast exclave) and Lithuania to the north. However, following the Soviet defeat of Germany in the Eastern front, Poland became a communist country within the Eastern Bloc. Livonia in the far northeast was incorporated by Poland in 1561 and Poland entered the Livonian War against Russia. The Polish–Ottoman War (1672–76) broke out during his reign, which lasted until 1673, and continued under his successor, John III Sobieski (r. Continuing economic decline led to strikes across the country in April, May and August. The vast majority were resettled in the former German territories. [81][83][86], The defeat of the Russian armies forced Vladimir Lenin and the Soviet leadership to postpone their strategic objective of linking up with the German and other European revolutionary leftist collaborators to spread communist revolution. Recovery took place under Casimir I the Restorer (r. 1039–58). [201] At least one million Poles remained in what had become the Soviet Union, and at least half a million ended up in the West or elsewhere outside of Poland. [276] According to Kuroń, a "tremendous social democratization movement in all spheres" was taking place and could not be contained. [251], However, unlike the other Warsaw Pact countries, Poland did not endorse the Soviet armed intervention in Hungary. [291][335], According to Karol Modzelewski, a dissident and critic of the economic transformation, in 1989 Solidarity no longer existed, having been in reality eliminated during the martial law period. [50][75][76][c1], In all, about two million Poles served in the war, counting both sides, and about 400–450,000 died. Collectively referred to by the Polish authorities as the "Recovered Territories", they were included in the reconstituted Polish state. Mehrere kleinere … Rydz-Śmigły did not allow General Władysław Sikorski, an enemy of the Sanation movement, to participate as a soldier in the country's defense against the Invasion of Poland in September 1939. The Republic o Poland (Pols: Rzeczpospolita Polska), for ordinar kent juist as Poland (Polska), is a kintra in central/aestren Europe.It mairches ontae the Baltic Sea tae the north, alang wi the Kaliningrad Oblast o Roushie. [24] Towards the end of the war, the Lubomirski's rebellion, a major magnate revolt against the king, destabilized and weakened the country. Poland began to form into a country around the middle of the 10th century in the Piast dynasty. [338], x.^ The Piast Concept, of which the chief proponent was Jan Ludwik Popławski (late 19th century), was based on the claim that the Piast homeland was inhabited by so-called "native" aboriginal Slavs and Slavonic Poles since time immemorial and only later was "infiltrated" by "alien" Celts, Germanic peoples, and others. After these events Poland gradually became a communist country. The intelligentsia, an educated, professional or business middle class, often originated from lower gentry, landless or alienated from their rural possessions, and from urban people. A Polish minority is still present in neighboring countries of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, as well as in other countries. [271] In mid-August, labor protests at the Gdańsk Shipyard gave rise to a chain reaction of strikes that virtually paralyzed the Baltic coast by the end of the month and, for the first time, closed most coal mines in Silesia. [43][45], The long-lasting session of parliament convened by King Stanisław August is known as the Great Sejm or Four-Year Sejm; it first met in 1788.
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